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ON THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES OF DIET BETWEEN CHINA AND ENGLISH COUNTRIES AND SOME POINTS FOR INTERPRETING CHINESE DISHES INTO ENGLISH
by Xu Aifang
June, 2007 Xiaogan Unversity
Abstract
This paper, through analysis of the differences between Chinese and English countries’ dietary cultures, points out several influential facts in interpretation of dietary culture at tables, and briefly discues some methods for interpreting Chinese dishes into English.Food, an eential prerequisite for the existence and development of mankind, remains a close relation with culture, and food culture varies with nations.Therefore, there are great disparities between China and the English countries in ideas, attitudes, contents and functions of dietary cultures.This paper endeavors to analyze the cultural differences and their rooted causes in Chinese and English dietary cultures from the perspectives of concept, etiquette and content.At last it emphasizes that the interpreter’s cultural awarene plays an important role in the interpretation.Key Words: dietary culture;Chinese dish names;cultural awarene;C/E interpretation
试析中西饮食文化差异及中餐菜名英译中的几个问题
摘要
本文通过探讨中西方饮食文化的差异以及结合实例归纳总结中式菜肴名称的翻译方法和技巧,指出影响中西方餐桌文化口译工作的因素。餐桌上的口译必然与饮食有关，饮食与文化更是密不可分。不同的民族造就了不同的饮食文化，所以饮食文化具有浓郁的民族性和多样性特点。中国与英美等西方国家对饮食的观点和态度，饮食内容以及饮食特点等方面都存在着显著的差异。本文就餐饮文化方面着重分析了中国与英美等西方国家在饮食观念，宴会礼仪，饮食内容等方面的跨文化差异，揭示了饮食文化差异对中餐菜名英译的影响。同时通过中式菜名的翻译的事例来加以分析说明译员跨文化意识的重要性。
关键词：饮食文化；中式菜肴名称；文化意识；英译
Contents 1.Introduction ··············································································································· 1 2.The differences between Chinese and English countries’ dietary cultures ·········· 1
2.1 Differences in concept ··························································································· 1
2.1.1 Sensibility vs.practicality ············································································ 1
2.1.2 Complexity vs.simplicity ············································································· 2
2.2 Differences in table manners ················································································· 3
2.2.1 Different table-wares: chopsticks vs.forks ·················································· 3
2.2.2 Different concepts regarding the time of attendance ···································· 3
2.2.3 Different arrangements of seats ···································································· 4
2.3 Differences in contents ·························································································· 4
2.3.1 Refinements vs.nutrients ············································································· 4
2.3.2 Differences of dish names ············································································ 4
3.Some points for interpreting Chinese dishes into English ······································· 5
3.1 Some methods of dish names’ translation ····························································· 5
3.1.1 The preparation work ···················································································· 5
3.1.2 Literal translation ·························································································· 5
3.1.3 Liberal translation ························································································· 6
3.1.4 The combination of literal and liberal translation ········································ 6
3.2 The cro-cultural awarene of the interpreter ····················································· 7
3.2.1 Study the dietary culture ··············································································· 7
3.2.2 Know the level of guests’ understanding of Chinese culture ······················· 7
3.2.3 Actively participate in the cultural communication ······································ 8 4.Conclusion ·················································································································· 8 5.Notes ·························································································································· 10 6.Bibliography
On the Cultural Differences of Diet between China and English Countries and Some Points for Interpreting Chinese Dishes into
English
1.Introduction
In recent years, with the rapid development of the Chinese economy and the influences of entering the WTO, the international communication activities between China and foreign countries are becoming more and more popular.Making friends during banquet is a kind of common form of communication.It is a good way to show one’s love and friendship to others, help to create a harmonious cooperation atmosphere between busine partners to publicize the Chinese dietary culture.The Chinese people, who are well known for their hospitality both at home and abroad, should not mi such chances to introduce their various delicacies to foreign friends.On such occasions, the interpreter, as a bridge over people from different countries, plays a tremendously important role in the proce of their communication.However, in recent years, some interpreters are often misunderstood by foreign guests because of their lack of cro-culture awarene and their inability to translate some Chinese dish names correctly.They do not know much about the differences between Chinese and English countries’ dietary cultures and do not pay enough attention to the translation methods for the Chinese dish name, which affects the spreading of Chinese dietary culture all over the world, and even sometimes makes foreign friends confused.Therefore, the author of this paper feels that it’s neceary to analyze several differences of Chinese and English countries’ dietary cultures, probe into some Chinese dish names’ translation methods, so that the Chinese profound dietary culture could be spread in a better way.2.The differences between Chinese and English countries’ dietary cultures
Different peoples and countries have different dietary cultures;their richne and diversity of different nationalities are also the embodiment of their creativity.China, Britain, the United States and other English countries have some different views and attitudes toward diet, and these differences might hinder interpreters from translating properly and spreading Chinese dietary culture in a better way.2.1 differences in concept 2.1.1 Sensibility vs.practicality
In China, diet has developed to a very important part in people’s life.It is almost beyond any other material and spiritual forms, and this has been apparently reflected in people’s daily life.The seven so-called basic daily needs: firewood, rice, oil, salt, sauces,vinegar, tea, all have deep relations to diet.Eating goes through a man’s whole life.When one was born, his parents would hold a birth celebration.Later when he was one month old or one year old, the family would get together and have a party again.When growing up, he would have birthday parties, wedding party and even funeral dinner held for him by his descendants when he paes away.When a visitor comes, he would prepare for the guest a formal dinner, which is called welcome dinner.He would invite friends to have dinner together when he moves into a new house, is promoted in his company or has solved a serious problem.All these show that people in China like eating with much emotions, for dinners have provided them lots of chances to show their love for friends, and exchange information.Even some emotional turmoil would be calmed down during the dinner time.Behind the form of eating, there are a profuse psychological and cultural significance, as well as people’s recognition and understanding of society, which embody a more profound social meaning.Eating not only has some original communication function, but has already transformed into an adjustment of social life and psychology.In Britain, U.S.A.and other English countries, eating is regarded as a way of communication and a neceary survival means.American psychologist Abraham Maslow divides human’s needs into five levels in his famous theory Law of Demand.Eating is claified into the first layer, which is the lowest level of human requirements.Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese anthropological scholar, once said, “The diet concepts of people from English countries are different from those of the Chinese.They think that eating is just an act giving your body nutrients, like injecting fuel to a machine, to ensure its normal operation.As long as they are healthy enough to resist diseases, they care little about other problems.”[1] Therefore, in the minds of the English people, eating just plays a life-sustaining role in their life.We can see clearly that the English people would not aign more important miions to eating, which has been done by the Chinese people for a long time.2.1.2.Complexity vs.simplicity
There is a fundamental difference between Chinese andd English countries’ banquet concepts.Chinese people pay much attention to the dinner itself and its arrangement.They provide profuse wine and courses, including ten main courses at a formal banquet, besides snacks, deerts, rice or noodles in the whole procedure of a dinner.The more sumptuous dishes the host prepares, the better the host’s hospitality and guest’s social status are reflected.In English countries, grand banquet is usually no more than six dishes and much simpler when it is only a kind of common dinner.Sometimes friends in the United States would all contribute to a dinner, which is called potluck, [2] and means that each person has taken a dish for sharing.It is evident that it creates opportunities for friends to get together and exchange ideas.It is reminiscent of friendships and provides acce for them to getinformation.It is subject to the concept of English countries’ banquet that the most important thing of a banquet lies not in the dishes themselves, but in the diversifying form of liberalization.The owner should try to create a relaxing, harmonious and cheerful atmosphere, let the guests enjoy the freedom of a wonderful time.Generally, that is the first purpose of a banquet in English countries.2.2 Differences in table manners
Table manners seem to be especially important both in China and English countries.Different table manners have formed during centuries because of different cultural backgrounds.An excellent interpreter always knows how to take advantages of such differences to make the interpreting proce smoother.2.2.1 Different table-wares: chopsticks vs.forks On the dinner tables, the most obvious difference is the choices of their table wares.The Chinese use chopsticks to clamp rice and dishes, while people from English countries cut food with their forks.Clearly, these different consumption patterns are not an accidental phenomenon.Since ancient times, the Chinese people have been farming on land, and nowadays the majority of the Chinese are still farmers.In such a cultural environment, people usually live on cereal-based food, tending to live and work in peace, streing the preciousne of stability, opposing aggreion and attacks.While many people from English countries were hunters in the past.They lived on meat-based diet.In order to be able to survive in the cruel circumstances, they must be good at hunting, and be offensive, aggreive.Gradually they have developed an adventurous character trait.[3] These two cultural preferences are almost contrast to each other.So what is reflected in the diet tends to be the choices of their table wares and their eating ways.2.2.2 Different concepts regarding the time of attendance Punctuality seems to be a common term that is appreciated by every person.But people from different cultural backgrounds have different understanding of this term.Some people habitually can’t be punctual.American renowned anthropologist Edward T.Hall, one of trans-cultural founders who study human relation thinks that time is a kind of commercial food which can be treated and used in different ways.[4] So no matter in what situations, people from English countries arrive on time.However, in China, people are prone to be late except in some very formal and very important dinners.Shanshanlaichi is usually used to describe such guests who are going to attend friends’ party not on time.Various reasons cause people to be late when attending dinners.To westerners’ surprise, the host accepts their unpunctuality, and has prepared some entertainment activities for the other guests during the waiting time.Both the host and guests feel it is common, not regarding it as impolite.In contrast, in English countries being late when one is invited to attend a dinner party is thought to be impolite to the host and the rest of the guests.So when an English guest is at a Chinesedinner, waiting, the interpreter should give proper explanations when some Chinese friends are late, so as to eliminate misunderstandings.2.2.3 Differences in the arrangements of seats The arrangement of guests' seats is also an important way to show people's social status and personal relationship.In different countries, the layout of seats is different.Hall once said “space speaks”[5] to describe the role of space.In China, the guests who are usually respected most would sit in the south of the table.The common friends sit in the north part of the table.While in ancient times, people from English countries thought the seats beside the host were the most respectable places.Another difference is the woman's social status.In ancient times, Chinese women had no social status, being subordinate to men.Although Chinese women's social status has been proving and women can have dinner with men now, there is still such a phenomenon that women sit together at one table, and men sit at another table.In English countries, there is a slogan called woman first.In English countries women have taken important social places from an very early time.Women and men have dinner together and they usually sit together, which embodies that women and men are equal.2.3 Differences in contents 2.3.1 Refinements vs.nutrients
Great differences also exist in diet contents.From ancient to modern days, Chinese dietary culture has been improved to various dietary branches such as Lu, Chuan, E, Min, Shu, Zhe, Xiang, Hui.The dishes' exquisitene has been embodied in every branch.This dietary consciousne has penetrated into the whole proce of dietary activity in an unconscious way.The proce of choosing the materials, cooking, matching, using table-wares and even the eating environment, all have highlighted the dishes' exquisitene.Compared with Chinese food, English countries’ food is simple, lacking a kind of nice atmosphere.Moreover, their cooking technology is inferior to China’s and many branches of English food were brought in from foreign countries.But judging from their nutrition value, English countries’ food emphasizes on their nutrition, and tries to make the food unsalted and keeps the balance of various nutrients.The English people think that eating is just a way to keep fit.No matter what they eat, no matter how simple the dinner is, they keep their eyes on their nutrition, and are sometimes ignorant of their taste.2.3.2 The difference of dish names
The names of Chinese food include lots of Chinese history stories and information of Chinese culture.For instance,东坡肉，宫爆鸡丁，霸王别姬，佛跳墙, etc.On the contrary, English dishes' names are much simpler.We can see what we'll eat from the names of dishes.For example, Kentucky fried chicken, Italian noodles and fries beefsteak etc.This phenomenon has also reflected English people's fast pace of life.3.Some points for interpreting Chinese dishes into English 3.1 Some methods of dish name's translation
The names of Chinese dishes are really rich.No matter what dishes the interpreter has to translate, he had better tell the foreign friends what materials they contain, how they are cooked and so on.If time permits, the interpreter could give an introduction about their nutrient value, related folk stories, and history stories, which will not only promote their appetite, but spread our Chinese dietary culture and make the atmosphere more harmonious.3.1.1 The preparation work
Before interpretation, the interpreter has to make some preparations.Firstly, he should get to know the theme of the interpretation work, including the profeional knowledge in other various fields if poible.These are the basic elements for doing a nice job.Secondly, the interpreter has to learn some relevant terminologies.E.g.:
The words or phrases of cooking: simmering, stewing, braising, frying, boiling, baking, steaming, smoking, scolding, stuffing;to quick-fry, to stir-fry, to deep fry, to twice cook, to pan-fry, to roast, to toast, to rinse, to grill, to spice, etc.The words of condiment: brawn sauce, white sauce, tomato sauce, onion, ginger, sesame oil, monosodium glutamate sugar, vinegar, salt, etc.The common ingredients: pork, fish, fillet, bean curd, sparerib, garlic, beef, steak, mutton, lamb chop, chicken duck, shark-fin, abalone, scallop, sea cucumber, bird's nest, bear's paw, monkey's brains, etc.The ways of using a knife include: slicing, shredding, filleting, dicing, cubing, grinding, mashing, etc.The main taste: salty, chilly, spicy, hot, sour, sweet, etc.3.1.2 Literal translation
Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original.[6]
That is to say, the interpreter can translate a dish with its cooking method, its ingredients or its taste.E.g.: 红烧鱼 : Braised fish in brawn sauce
冬菇菜芯: Winter mushroom with green cabbage 青椒肉丝: Shredded pork with green peeper 怪味鸡: Multi-flawed chicken 炒肉丝: Sautéed pork slices 炖牛肉: Stewed beef
清蒸桂鱼: Steamed mandarin fish 煎鸡蛋: Fried eggs
回锅肉: Twice cooked pork or double cooked pork[7]
If there are large numbers of cooking terminologies in the interpreter's mind, it won’t be too difficult for him to translate the dish names literally, and would not cause misunderstanding in most cases.3.1.3 Liberal translation
Liberal translation is also called free translation, which does not adhere strictly to the literal meaning or the word order of the original.[8] It is the word elegance that the names of Chinese dishes focus on.In order to keep their elegance, many dish names are completely different from their original materials.E.g.: 炒双冬 is translated into fried winter mushrooms and winter bamboo shoots, because 双冬refers to winter mushroom and winter bamboo, but from the Chinese name we don't know what we will eat.三鲜汤: Soup with fish, shrimp and pork balls.The interpreter has to refer to its original materials.Many names of Chinese dishes use metaphors to add their vividne
翡翠虾仁: Stir-fried shrimps with peas
积雪银钟: Stewed mushrooms with white gangues 蚂蚁上树: Sautéed bean vermicelli with spicy meat sauce.These names, if translated literally, might cause misunderstandings.Here the author exemplifies the translations of several Chinese dishes just for reference.For examples, some people translate 霸王别姬 into “the king is saying goodbye to his beloved woman”;全家幅is translated into “a photograph of the whole family”, which make the quests feel confused and still don't know at all what they will eat at last.3.1.4 The combination of literal and liberal translation This translation method means that some dishes can be translated literally, but some explanations should be added.They can be divided into four groups.The first group refers to those names of dishes that include some famous people’s names.For example, 东坡肉can be translated into “poet Dong Po’s braised pork”.Then the interpreter should explain that Su Dongpo was a famous poet in the Song Dynasty.毛式红烧肉can be translated as “chairman Mao’s stewed pork with soy sauce”, then the interpreter can add that Chairman Mao was a great leader in China.麻婆豆腐can be translated as “bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce”, and then you add that Mapo was the creator of this dish.The second group relates to the names which include places.For example, 北京烤鸭can be translated as “Beijing roast duck”, then you add that Beijing food is always delicious and wonderful.成都子鸡can be translated as “stir-fried small chicken in Chengdu style”, with explanation that Sichuan food is characterized by its spicy and hot flavor.It’s spicy and hot.[10]The third group means the dishes which contain folk stories.叫花鸡 can be translated into “beggar’s chicken”.There is a legendary story connected with it.The interpreter had better tell the story that it was said that long ago there was a beggar who stole a chicken one day.He was pursued by the owner.He was almost caught when he suddenly hit upon a good idea.He smeared the chicken all over with clay which he found nearby and threw it into the fire he had built to cook it.After a long while the beggar removed the mud coasted from the fire.When he cracked open the clay he found, to his astonishment, that the clay together with the feather had formed a hard shell in which the chicken had been baked into a delicious dish with a wonderful flavor.That night he had a very enjoyable meal.Hence the name the dish.[11] The last group dishes refer to the names that are catered for an auspicious atmosphere and a festival cultural psychology.This type of names can be directly translated into Chinese cuisine names, and then the interpreter should add the ingredients of these dishes.E.g.全家福can be translated as “a happy family”, but the interpreter should add that it’s a a combination of shrimp, pork, beef, chicken, lobster and mixed vegetables with brown sauce.龙风配can be translated as “dragon and phoenix”, but the interpreter should add that it two separate dishes in one plate.On one side is lobster meat in Sichuan chili sauce, which is an inviting;on the other is house special chicken, which never fails in delighting.[12] 3.2 The cro-culture awarene of the interpreter
Interpretation is actually a cro-culture communication, in which the interpreter should have a strong sense of the two cultures and the translation should be made as clear as poible.The interpreter should have not only bilingual skills, but also bicultural ability.Some of the interpreters regard interpretation as cultural interpretation.[13]
Interpretation often fails if the interpreter ignores the cultural factors and can not act as a good communication exchanger.Interpretation of the names of Chinese dishes is actually a proce to introduce Chinese dietary culture to the foreign guests.In this particular case, the interpreter’s cro-culture awarene is important and is reflected in three points.3.2.1 Study of dietary culture
In order to understand the original language and culture, that is to say, the Chinese language and the Chinese culture, the interpreter should learn the Chinese dietary culture, know the cultural backgrounds of the names and know the raw materials and the methods which the names actually concern.Meanwhile, the interpreter should introduce the Chinese dietary culture to the foreign guests timely and appropriately if poible.3.2.2 Know the level of the guests’ understanding of Chinese culture.According to the guests’ understanding of the Chinese culture, the interpreter candetermine the translation methods.Usually with his sensitivity of translation, the interpreter would know under what circumstances the literal translation would make foreign guests have no obstacle in understanding, such as people’s names, places metaphoric names and the names with stories.Those names’ translations are often relying on the knowledge and cultural backgrounds that can be understood by the guests.At this time, based on the literal translation, the interpreter should add explanations to mend foreign guest’s cultural gaps and put the source language culture into the target language culture if poible, so as to make the translation acceptable and promote cultural exchanges well.3.2.3 Actively participate in the cultural communication
The interpreter is not only an intermediary but also an active participator at a dinner.The interpreter has the responsibility and obligation to promote the exchange of mutual understanding and communication.Under certain circumstances, the interpreter should use their dual-cultural knowledge to explain the cultural differences and misunderstandings which might be caused by the communicators who lack understanding with each other.For example, at a banquet, when ordering Chinese dishes, the interpreter can remind the officials to pay attention to the foreign guest’s national culture and psychological tastes, avoiding ordering the taboo food, such as vinegar pork, pig heart and so on.In short, in order to complete impromptu interpretation task, the interpreter has to make full preparations to understand and become familiar with some cooking terminologies and the corresponding English expreions, to understand the diet-related knowledge and cultural backgrounds, to use the translation strategies flexibly for on-the-spot translation, to take advantage of its double cultural ability to promote mutual understanding and communication, to introduce foreign friends the Chinese food culture timely and appropriately.4.Conclusion This paper compares the cultural differences of diet between China and English countries and gives a general illustration on some influential points concerning how an interpreter can do a good job in translating Chinese dish names into English.Firstly, it points out that a very important factor in the interpretation work at tables is the interpreter’s knowledge of the cultural differences between China and English countries, and analyzes eight differences from four aspects.Secondly, it suggests three translation methods and demonstrates them with a large number of examples to show the eential role that translation methods play in interpretation work.Last but not least, from other aspects it analyzes the importance of interpreters’ cro-culture awarene, In a word, culture differences, translation methods and cro-culture awarene are important influential factors in interpretation work at tables.I hope this paper will be of some help to thosepeople who are interested in interpreting Chinese dishes into English, and will, to a certain extent, promote the cro-culture exchanges between China and English countries.Notes [1] 杜学增.中英文化习俗比较[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.1999（3）:15-18.[2] 胡文仲.跨文化交际概论[M] 北京：外语教学与研究出版社.2000（1）:23-25.[3][13] 刘丞华.文化与人格—对中西文化差异的一次比较[M] 合肥：中国科技大学出版社.2002（1）:11-14.[4] [5] Edward T.Hall.The Silent Language [M].New York: Anchor Book, 1990(4): 61-62.[12] 黄海翔.中餐菜单英译浅谈[J] 中国科技翻译 1999（2）:22-24.[6][8] Guo Zhuzhang.A Practical Course in Translation between English and Chinese [M].Wuhan: University Pre.2005(5):10-12.[7][10] 刘萍.中式菜肴名称的口译[J].中国科技翻译 2001（1）:65-67.[9][11] 任静生.也谈中菜与主食的英译问题[J].中国翻译.2001（2）:45-47.Bibliography 1.Banegtt B.& Lefever.Translation, History, Culture [M].Printer Publishers Limited, 1990.2.Bram J.Language and Society [M].Random House, 1995.3.Cha, Y.R.A Grammar of Spoken Chinese.Los Angeles: University of California Pre, 1968.4.Hu Zhuanglin.Linguistics: A Course Book [M].Beijing: Beijing University Pre, 2001.5.John Defrancis.Chinese-English Dictionary [M].Chinese-English Great Dictionary Pre, 1997.6.Phillips J.Foreign Language Standards: Linking Research, Theories and Practice [M].Lincolnwood: National Textbook Company, 1999.7.毕继万.跨文化非语言交际[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1999.8．杜建慧.翻译学概论[M].北京：民族出版社，1998.9．顾嘉祖.跨文化交际—外国语言文学中的隐蔽文化[M].南京：南京师范大学出版社，2002.10．何高大.实用英汉汉英口译技巧[M].长沙：中南工业大学出版社，1997.11．胡赓申.谈谈口译前的准备[M].广东外事，1988.12．易中天.闲话中国人[M].北京：华龄出版社，1996
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